Explaining Physical Activity in Individuals with Mental Retardation: An Exploratory Study

This study investigated physical activity patterns of seven adolescents with mental retardation over a seven day period. Further, motivation, fitness levels, physical activity of one caregiver, and parent interview responses were triangulated to study this select group. Results indicated that two main factors explained physical activity in participants. A very large relationship existed between age and minutes of moderate physical activity and social reasons emerged as a key theme during caregiver interviews. Intrinsic motivation scores were high and amotivation scores were relatively low in the sample. Physical activity data resulted in 6 to 14 bouts of moderate physical activity per day lasting from 2 to 4 min depending on the case. This pattern of short periods of moderate physical activity is consistent with results from similar studies on children without disabilities. Physical activity and the health related benefits of movement have been a focus of many recent government and educational reports. Specifically, recommendations for physical activity are that all persons (ages 2 and older) should incur at least 20 minutes of activity at moderate intensities on all days of the week (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). These recommendations, though not specific to individuals with disabilities, may hold true for healthy individuals with mental retardation (MR). Further, age related changes in persons with MR with respect to fitness indicate that response to exercise is similar to peers without disabilities although there is an increased need for movement given lower levels of fitness that exist in this target group in general (Rimmer, 1999; Seaman, 1999). This study contains exploratory information on activity levels, the utility of activity monitors, motivation, and health related fitness in a select group of persons with MR. Inactivity in Persons with MR Inactivity has become a major public health concern for individuals at all ages (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Formal and informal physical education programming can play a major role in enhancing activity in learners, including children with disabilities. Physical activity has the potential to reduce health risk factors and positively affect other physiological subsystems in the body during certain critical developmental periods. Adults with MR are at a heightened risk for factors related to inactivity, such as cardiac disease, obesity, high cholesterol etc. (Carter & Jancar, 1983; Pitetti & Campbell, 1991). Few studies have been done investigating physical activity patterns in individuals with MR and their caregivers. Further, although relationships between motivation and physical activity are believed to exist (Roberts, 2001); study of specific physical activity patterns in individuals with MR is needed to isolate specific reasons for low fitness levels in this population (Winnick & Short, 1999). The purpose of this study is to determine what types of variables potentially exist beyond school programming factors that may be in need of further study. Individuals with MR from community settings have been shown to be even less active than persons from institutional settings (Pitetti & Campbell, 1991). One reason for this latter finding may be that individuals with MR from community settings are not adept at independently accessing recreation options within the community (McDonnell, HardCorrespondence concerning this article should be addressed to Francis M. Kozub, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, HPER 179, Bloomington, IN 47405. E-mail: [email protected]. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2003, 38(3), 302–313 © Division on Developmental Disabilities 302 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2003 man, Hightower, Keifer-O’Donnell, & Drew, 1993). With this in mind, Modell and Valdez (2002) recommend an increased attention to transition planning for individuals with disabilities to enhance post school living and general quality of life. Measuring Physical Activity in Individuals with Disabilities Measuring physical activity levels in children and adults has received considerable attention in recent research reports. In this regard, use of self-report questionnaires to measure activity has limitations for all persons and specifically for special populations (Hatcher, Porretta, & Kozub, 1996; Jakicic et al., 1998). Due to limitations of using self-report questionnaires, observational information/coding (Ainsworth et al., 1992; O’Hara, Baranowski, Simmons-Morton, Wilson, & Parcel, 1989) and physical activity monitors are considered viable alternatives (Jakicic et al.; Welk & Corbin, 1995; Welk, Corbin, & Kampert, 1998). Most recently, Freedson and Miller (2000) indicated the small and unobtrusive nature of the monitor’s motion sensors make it a useful tool in assessing movement. For this reason, the most recent RT3 monitors were utilized in the current study over self-reports, which tend to have lower estimates of validity for younger populations (Sallis & Saelens, 2000). Motivation and Physical Activity Intrinsic motivation for physical activity is associated with pleasure and enjoyment. This willingness to participate in movement for pleasure or satisfaction (Reid, Vallerand, & Poulin, 2001) can result from perceptions of freedom or in the case of individuals with disabilities the opportunity to make choices (Wehmeyer, 1994). Extrinsic motivation on the other hand deals with the issue of external rewards such as praise or perhaps tangible rewards from others. In this regard individuals with MR are believed to be highly extrinsically motivated based on past reinforcement histories. In fact, many special education programs rely heavily on external rewards for a child’s compliance or success in academic areas (Cohen, 1986; Wehmeyer). Amotivation is a third category of motivation outlined by adapted physical activity researchers who try to explain movement in special populations (Reid et al.). Amotivation is related to participation without a purpose. In amotivation, a person may experience what is termed “learned helplessness.” Learned helplessness is linked to low persistence at challenging motor tasks and a perception of external control (Martinek & Griffith, 1994; Siegel, 1979). Motivation is a complex phenomenon. In learners without disabilities simple enjoyment of physical activity predisposes a child to movement in different contexts. However, based on the poor ability of individuals with MR to learn and generalize skills (Krebs & Block, 1992; Rarick, 1980; Vaughn, Bos, & Lund, 1986), this assumption may not hold true for learners with unique motor needs. For this reason it is important for researchers to study motivation in conjunction with physical activity to determine if a profile exists that explains inactivity. Health-Related Fitness and Physical Activity Although is has been found that adolescents with MR are less fit on virtually all measures of health-related fitness (Winnick & Short, 1999), the exact cause for low fitness scores is most likely due to multiple factors. Research reports have found that as a group, individuals with disabilities have less opportunity than non-disabled peers to engage in sports programs (Kozub & Porretta, 1998). Further, children with MR have been found to be less persistent than peers without disabilities, which may explain low skill levels and impact on fitness scores (Kozub, 2002). Low fitness coupled with low skill perhaps leads to inactivity in persons with MR. However, some adapted physical educators have suggested that more dynamic systems such as family interactions may play a role in explaining inactivity in persons with disabilities (Fiorini, Stanton, & Reid, 1996; Kozub, 2001). For this reason, motivational factors alone may not explain inactivity and low fitness found in persons with MR. The purpose of this study is to utilize data triangulation procedures to explore physical activity patterns in adolescents/young adults with MR. The small group of participants were Explaining Physical Activity / 303 studied using multiple data collection procedures to gain deeper understanding than would be obtained from simply studying activity levels in a larger sample. Further, motivational factors, parent activity patterns, and fitness variables were used to help explain physical activity in a select group of participants.